The Spanish Civil War

Notes

[we are considering doing a video on the Spanish Civil War - this summary of the war will make the basis for the video - your comments, as always, are welcome]

The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

The precursors to war

The Spanish Civil War erupted in July 1936 and was rooted in deep-seated, structural imbalances in Spanish society and the economy. These imbalances were exacerbated by the failure of successive regimes to establish a legitimate state system. Political power had long been concentrated in the hands of a small elite, who resisted moderate reforms that could have co-opted the masses. In rural areas, particularly in southern and western Spain, landowners faced a population of agricultural labourers and poor tenants living in miserable conditions, with high unemployment and low literacy rates. The state offered little beyond the repressive presence of the Civil Guard.

Industrial workers endured low wages, poor working conditions, inadequate housing, and virtually no social welfare in urban areas. The rapidly expanding working-class neighbourhoods in cities like Barcelona, Bilbao, and Madrid lacked basic urban infrastructure, leading to dangerous living conditions. The Republic's rise in 1931 symbolised a dramatic shift in values and hierarchies, offering hope for political renewal and social justice, which resonated with the working masses. However, it also provoked fear among conservatives, who worried that revolutionary claims for redistribution of wealth would overwhelm them.

The proclamation of the Second Republic on 14 April 1931 marked a significant turning point in Spanish history. It represented not just a change of regime but a profound challenge to the established order. The Republic's symbolic potency was clear, signalling the end of the monarchy and a move towards secularism, regional devolution, and social reform. This shift threatened traditional religious privileges and military authority, provoking wariness among the bishops and generals who saw the Republic as an agent of modernisation and change.

The Republic's promise of social justice, land reform, and improved living conditions brought many to the voting booths, eager to dismantle the old regime. However, the economic challenges of the Great Depression cast doubt on the government's ability to deliver on these promises. The weight of popular expectation was enormous, and although the monarchy had collapsed, the institutions and social sectors long associated with it, such as the church, army, landlords, and industrial elites, remained intact. The Republic sought to democratise Spanish society, but this task was fraught with difficulties.

Internal divisions within the Republican camp, differing views on the extent and nature of necessary reforms, and the lack of consensus weakened the Republic from its inception. The provisional government, formed by leaders who had pledged to overthrow the monarchy, faced the daunting task of managing these transformations. Key figures like Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, Manuel Azaña, and the Socialists had differing priorities, from social reform to secular education and regional autonomy.

Despite early reforms, such as labour laws and religious liberty, the government faced opposition and internal strife, exemplified by events like the burning of churches and convents in 1931. The June elections of that year were a victory for the left, but they also highlighted the deep polarisation within Spanish society. With their revolutionary agenda, the Anarchists put constant pressure on the Republic, which was on trial to deliver a new social order.

The Republic's radical constitutional draft in 1931, which established a secular democratic system with provisions for regional autonomy, female suffrage, and civil rights, further alienated conservatives and property owners. The constitution's divisive nature and the Republic's subsequent policies deepened the polarisation, setting the stage for the eventual civil war. The Republic's inability to balance the demands of its supporters and the resistance of its opponents, coupled with the economic hardships of the time, led to increasing discontent and instability. The rise of right-wing groups like the CEDA, which defended Catholicism, property, and traditional values, and their refusal to commit to the Republic, signalled the growing opposition to the Republican government.

The Republic's efforts at reform, including land redistribution and regional autonomy, were seen as insufficient by its supporters and too radical by its opponents. This polarisation and the failure to achieve consensus on the Republic's direction ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936.

Labour radicalisation in Spain was marked by strikes and unrest in industry and agriculture. The Republican-Socialist coalition responded to this unrest with repressive measures similar to those of previous governments. For instance, an Anarchist general strike in the summer of 1931 was crushed by the army, resulting in 30 deaths. In December 1931, a demonstration by rural workers in Castilblanco, Extremadura, led to the killing of a demonstrator by the Civil Guard, which in turn sparked the lynching of four Civil Guards by the furious crowd. Further unrest, such as the national general strike in January 1932 and an Anarchist uprising in January 1933, was met with severe repression, including a brutal crackdown in the village of Casas Viejas.

The government faced criticism from both sides: the right blamed it for the disorder, while the left condemned its brutal repression. The state, represented by the forces of law and order, appeared unchanged to strikers and demonstrators, while conservatives viewed the government as incompetent. The disillusionment within the Socialist Party grew throughout 1933, leading to the disintegration of the Republican-Socialist alliance. President Alcalá-Zamora's attempts to govern without Azaña or the Socialists failed, prompting him to call for general elections in November 1933, marking the end of the first biennium.

By the time of the 1933 election campaign, fascism was on the rise in Europe, with Mussolini in power for over a decade in Italy and Hitler's recent ascent in Germany. José María Gil Robles, leader of the CEDA, adopted Nazi rhetoric and style in his campaign, advocating for anti-Marxist policies and a 'totalitarian polity'. The CEDA entered an electoral coalition with monarchists and, in some areas, with Radicals, employing a strategic approach that secured them 115 seats, while the Socialists, divided and facing massive abstention from disillusioned Anarchists, saw their seats drop from 117 to 58.

Alejandro Lerroux's Radicals, backed by the CEDA, governed Spain for nearly a year, systematically dismantling the agrarian and social legislation of the previous Republican-Socialist coalition. This rollback of reforms particularly impacted the agricultural south, resulting in falling wages, increased employer power, and decreased land redistribution efforts. The CEDA's influence also led to the repeal or suspension of legislation on religion, marking a significant shift in policy.

Tensions escalated further in October 1934, when the CEDA entered the government with three ministers in key positions, prompting fears on the left of a fascist takeover. Socialist leaders, who had previously advocated moderation, turned to revolution, leading to widespread strikes and uprisings. In Asturias, a well-prepared alliance of Socialists, Anarchists, and Communists declared a Socialist republic, seizing control of towns and villages. The government, under Prime Minister Lerroux, responded with overwhelming force, calling in General Francisco Franco and colonial troops to crush the rebellion, resulting in a high death toll and brutal repression.

The aftermath of the October 1934 events left the left chastened and the right convinced that the 'Bolshevik' threat could only be met with force. Although many death penalties were commuted, Gil Robles was appointed Minister for War, and Catalan autonomy was suspended. The collapse of the Radical party in a corruption scandal in 1935 led to new elections being scheduled for February 1936, with the outbreak of civil war only five months away.

Civil War

In the February 1936 elections, Spain's political landscape was sharply divided. Conservatives viewed the left as revolutionary, while the left saw their opponents as reactionary and possibly fascist. José María Gil Robles aimed to secure power for the CEDA by revising the Republic's constitution to appease the right. His goal was to achieve an outright majority in parliament, forcing President Alcalá-Zamora to appoint him Prime Minister. Fears arose that Gil Robles might follow the path of Hitler or Dollfuss, using democratic means to dismantle democracy.

However, achieving an outright majority was challenging without an electoral coalition, and the CEDA's previous partner, the Radicals, had largely disbanded. Gil Robles attempted to build a broad, counter-revolutionary alliance, which included various conservative factions and even some Radicals, attracted by the CEDA's strength. The campaign was vigorous, with modern advertising techniques and a massive propaganda effort.

Despite the increased vote for the right-wing coalition, the Popular Front, an opposing electoral alliance, performed even better. This anti-fascist pact, led by Indalecio Prieto and Manuel Azaña, united Socialists, Republicans, and Communists under a minimal program focused on civil rights, amnesty for political prisoners, and reinstating the reforms of the first bienio. Although the content of the Popular Front's agreement was modest, it secured an electoral victory, giving the alliance a significant majority in parliament.

The Popular Front's win alarmed Spanish conservatives, particularly due to its commitment to social legislation like agrarian reform, devolution, and secularising education and marriage. Sensing the threat to conservative values, Gil Robles consulted with army chiefs about preventing the Popular Front from taking power, though they were not immediately ready to act. Nonetheless, the political environment grew increasingly volatile.

The Popular Front's electoral victory did not translate into a coalition government. Instead, the Republicans were left to govern alone, leading to internal tensions and a weak administration. Meanwhile, unrest continued to simmer, with land seizures by desperate peasants and increasing violence in cities like Madrid, where the Falange and Communist factions clashed. The government struggled to maintain control, with over 250 violent deaths between February and July.

By June, the military coup was being planned, led by General Mola and supported by other high-ranking officers and conservative politicians. The assassination of monarchist leader José Calvo Sotelo on 13 July by government forces further escalated tensions, convincing the plotters to set a definitive date for the uprising. General Franco joined the conspiracy, and the coup began in Spanish Morocco on 17 July, spreading to other regions over the following days. While the coup succeeded in some areas, it failed in others, leading to a military and geographical division of Spain. The Spanish Civil War had begun.

The initial division of forces and resources during the Spanish Civil War's early days left the Republicans and the rebels dissatisfied. The rebels lost their leader, General Sanjurjo, in a plane crash on 20 July 1936. The rebels did manage to secure Spanish Morocco, where Franco had arrived on 19 July, giving him command of the Army of Africa and a small air force detachment. However, Franco faced the significant challenge of transporting his formidable forces to the mainland, as Republican-loyal crews on Spanish ships in the Mediterranean had disobeyed their rebel officers, executing them, and leaving the rebels isolated.

While the rebels held Cádiz, thanks to generals Varela and Lopez Pinto, the city was out of reach, and Seville, taken by Queipo de Llano, was cut off from the rest of Spain. Despite some early successes in conservative strongholds like Old Castile, Navarre, and the far northwest, the rebels failed to gain control in crucial areas like Bilbao, Madrid, and Barcelona. The geographical isolation of key territories complicated the rebels' efforts to exercise overall command, and the rebellion's leadership was fragmented, with local militias and monarchist activists often acting independently.

On the Republican side, the situation was dire as a third of the country fell into rebel hands within days. The military rebellion triggered a popular backlash that eroded the government's authority, with trade unionists and left-wing parties demanding arms. Prime Minister Casares Quiroga resisted, and then resigned on 18 July, leading to a rapid succession of government changes. José Giral, who became Prime Minister on 19 July, decided to arm the Madrid proletariat, which resulted in the arming of Socialist and Anarchist trade unions. This power shift from the government to the streets was mirrored elsewhere, as revolutionary masses took control.

The Republican forces faced fierce battles in both Madrid and Barcelona. General Fanjul, leading the rebellion, was besieged in the Montana barracks in Madrid, which fell to the armed crowds on 20 July after intense fighting. In Barcelona, the rebel plan to take the city was thwarted by loyalist forces and armed civilians, resulting in heavy casualties and the capture of General Goded, who was later executed. Similar power struggles occurred in other cities, with outcomes often determined by the personal decisions of commanding officers.

The rebels, whether they had to fight to gain control or not, immediately implemented violent repression against those associated with the Popular Front. Executions and summary killings became widespread, with rightist gangs and military officers targeting left-wing party members, trade unionists, and freemasons. Even where rebels were in full control, terror was used to intimidate and punish opposition.

By 20 July, it was evident that the government was not the victor where the rebellion had failed. Anarchists, Socialists, and Communists dominated the streets, establishing revolutionary committees. President Lluis Companys acknowledged the shift in power to Anarchist leaders in Catalonia. At the same time, in Republican Spain, outside of the Basque provinces, revolutionary terror was directed against the propertied elites, conservative politicians, and the church.

The violence on both sides was intense, fueled by deep-seated class hatred and cultural conflicts. Army officers who had rebelled against the Republic justified their actions by claiming that the violence had its roots in the October 1934 revolution and that the Popular Front was an illegitimate continuation of those forces. This narrative was used to justify ongoing repression and reprisals.

After the initial phase of the coup and early battles, Spain was divided, with approximately 13 million people in Republican territory, which held most of the country's industry and financial resources, and about 11 million in Nationalist-held areas, which included key agricultural regions. Both sides faced challenges in organising their forces. The Republic controlled most of the air force, navy, and militarised law enforcement, while the Nationalists had the well-trained and disciplined Army of Africa. Both sides were roughly equal in numerical strength, but the Republic's forces were less experienced and faced significant challenges in training and arming new recruits.

The Spanish air force was small, with the government controlling about 200 planes and the Nationalists around 100. The Republic also had a significant advantage in naval power, but the expertise of commanding officers was limited due to purges by mutinous crews. The Republic seemed better positioned for a prolonged conflict regarding industrial and agricultural resources, but the rebels had greater military control over their territories.

Given the precarious balance of power and the urgent need for resources, both sides looked abroad for foreign assistance, setting the stage for the Spanish Civil War to become an international conflict.